Why is it hopping but hoping? Why catch but coach? These aren't random. English spelling carries two kinds of information at once: how a word sounds and where it comes from. The rules below cover the sound side, the patterns that decide which letters you need.
Each rule has a few exceptions. That's normal. A rule that explains 90% of words is still a huge help.
Rules for adding endings
These are the rules learners use most, because they change the spelling of a word you already know.
1. The doubling rule
When a short word ends in one vowel + one consonant, double the last consonant before adding an ending that starts with a vowel (-ing, -ed, -er, -est).
- hop → hopping, run → runner, big → biggest
- But not when there are two consonants or two vowels: jump → jumping, rain → raining
The double letter protects the short vowel. Without it, hoping and hopping would be spelled the same.
British vs American: in longer words, British English doubles a final l even when the stress isn't on it (travelling, cancelled), while American English usually doesn't (traveling, canceled).
2. Drop the silent e
When a word ends in a silent e, drop it before an ending that starts with a vowel. Keep it before an ending that starts with a consonant.
- make → making, hope → hoped, brave → bravest
- hope → hopeful, safe → safely, move → movement
- Exceptions: argument, truly, ninth; and -ce/-ge words keep the e before -able/-ous to keep the soft sound: noticeable, courageous
3. Change y to i
When a word ends in a consonant + y, change the y to i before most endings.
- happy → happiness, carry → carried, baby → babies
- Keep the y before -ing, so you don't get two i's together: carry → carrying
- Keep the y after a vowel: play → played, enjoy → enjoyment (exceptions: said, paid, laid)
4. Plurals: -s or -es?
Add -es when the word ends in a hissing or buzzing sound (s, x, z, ch, sh), because you can hear the extra syllable. Otherwise add -s.
- box → boxes, church → churches, wish → wishes
- cat → cats, table → tables
5. f and fe become ves
Many words ending in f or fe change to -ves in the plural: leaf → leaves, knife → knives, half → halves. This one has plenty of exceptions to learn by heart: roofs, chiefs, beliefs, chefs.
Rules for consonant sounds
6. The FLOSS rule: ff, ll, ss, zz
In a one-syllable word with a short vowel, a final f, l, s or z is usually doubled.
- cliff, stuff · bell, hill · kiss, dress · buzz, fizz
- Exceptions: if, of, bus, yes, gas, this
7. ck after a short vowel
At the end of a one-syllable word, the /k/ sound is spelled ck straight after a short vowel, and k after anything else.
- back, duck, sock (short vowel) → ck
- book, park, milk, bake (long vowel, two vowels, consonant, or silent e) → k
8. tch and dge after a short vowel
Same idea as ck. After a short vowel, the /ch/ sound is usually tch and the /j/ sound is dge. After anything else, use ch and ge.
- catch, fetch, kitchen · badge, bridge, fudge
- coach, bench, lunch · cage, huge, large
- Exceptions: much, such, rich, which
9. c or k at the start?
Use c before a, o, u and consonants. Use k before e, i, y.
- cat, cot, cut, clap, crab
- kettle, kit, sky
The reason links to the next rule: before e, i or y, a c would sound like /s/.
10. Soft c and soft g
Before e, i or y, the letter c usually says /s/ and g often says /j/.
- city, cent, cycle · gem, giant, gym
- Hard everywhere else: cat, cold · gap, got
- g has more exceptions than c: get, give, girl, tiger
11. q is (almost) always followed by u
In everyday English words, q comes with a u: queen, quick, square. The exceptions are mostly borrowed words like Qatar or qi.
12. English words don't end in v or j
A word that ends in the /v/ sound gets an e after it: have, give, love, glove. That's why these words look as if they should have a long vowel but don't. A final /j/ sound is spelled -ge or -dge: page, edge.
Rules for vowel sounds
13. The magic e (split digraph)
A silent e at the end of a word reaches back over one consonant and makes the vowel say its name.
- hat → hate, pin → pine, hop → hope, cub → cube
In UK schools this is often taught as a split digraph: the two letters a–e make one sound, even with a consonant between them.
14. "i before e except after c" (with care)
The famous rule works best in its full form: i before e except after c, when the sound is "ee".
- believe, field, piece · receive, ceiling, deceive
- When the sound isn't "ee" the rule doesn't apply: eight, their, vein
- Real exceptions: weird, seize, protein, and science and species after c
When rules run out: look at where the word comes from
Many "irregular" spellings are only irregular if you ignore their history. The ph in phone and the ch in school come from Greek. The b in doubt was added to echo the Latin dubitare. Once you know a word's parts, its spelling often makes sense. Our guide to Greek and Latin roots covers the most useful ones.
How to practise spelling rules
- One rule at a time. Spend a week on the doubling rule, finding examples in books, before moving on.
- Sort words. Write a pile of words on cards and sort them into "follows the rule" and "exception".
- Say the sounds while you build. Saying c-a-tch aloud while writing it links the sound to the spelling pattern.
- Hunt for exceptions. Children love catching a rule "breaking". It also shows the rule is a pattern, not a law.
Learning with Wordsmith: our upcoming game Wordsmith is built around these rules. Players build words from tiles (sounds, endings and roots) and watch rule tiles change the spelling as they go, like the silent e dropping out of mak(e)·ing. Every piece is spoken aloud in a British or American voice, across 12 worlds that run from c·a·t to Latin and Greek roots.